The Silent Way

The Silent Way 

The Silent Way was introduced after the criticism of using Audio-Lingual Teaching Methodology

Main Problems of ALM 

•  Students inability to readily transfer the habits as they have learn to communicate in the classroom

•  Idea that learning a language as a formation of habit was challenged in 1960s. This is related to the Chomsky’s view on Language Acquisition. He further argued that language acquisition couldn’t be seen as ‘habit formation’.

•  Chomsky proposed that speakers have the knowledge of underlying abstract rules, that makes the to understand and create novel utterances

•  Rule formation

• People use their ‘cognition skills’ to discover the rules of language

                                                      

Background of this methodology

The Silent Way, a method of language teaching introduced by Caleb Gattegno. Gattergno name is well known for his interest in using coloured wooden sticks called the cuisenaire rods and for his series Words in Colour, a way to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are coded by definite colours. His materials are copyrighted and marketed through an organisation named "Educational Solutions Inc, in New York.  The Silent way represents Gattegno's venture into the field of foreign language teaching. It refers to the methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be silent in the classroom, but students should be encourages to speak as much as possible. 

The silent way shares a great deal with other learning theories and educational philosophies. Below, is the three basic principles underlying Gattegno's work: 

1.   Learners are trained to be autonomous learners

2.   The learner needs to discover or create

3.   Learning is made easier with the use of physical objects such as Cuisenaire rods

4.   Learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language 

5.   Teacher should be subordinated to learning(Freeman, 1993). 

Based on the fourth principle, Gattegno believed that when teachers teach means they serve the learning process rather than control it. This principle is in keeping with the active search for rules ascribed to the students in the Cognitive Code Approach. The Silent way viewed learning as a problem solving, creative, discovering activity which learners seen as 'actors' 

Learning Theory

Cognitive Psychology is the basis. Language learning is a rule formation. Language learning has a sequence from the known to the unknown. Students convince the rules from examples and the languages they are exposed to, so learning is seen as 'inductive'. 

  Language Theory 

Language of the whole share a number of features. For instance, every language uses subject, object, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and etc. Therefore, each language is unique. Language is for self-expression( feelings, ideas, thoughts). "Cognitive Coding" helps students to learn the language. Colour Rods and Fidel Charts is for cognitive code

    Culture

Culture is an inseparable part of language. Language reflects culture. Everyday art, literature, and life should be learnt 

Goals of the teacher 

•    Student will use language as a means  for self-expression 
•    Students need to learn to be independent from the teacher and to enhance their own inner criteria for self-correctness
•    Students are seen as 'autonomous learners'

Teacher's Role

The teacher is an engineer or a technician who facilitates learning. Only students can do learning. The teacher is aware of what students already know and he/she can decide the next step. The teacher is silent. Silence is a tool because the teachers are silent and that gives the responsibility to the student. Besides, teacher’s silence helps students monitor themselves and improve their own inner criteria.

There is a phrase ‘Only the student can do the learning, but the teacher can provide any help needed by the student’

This means that it focus mainly on students’ perceptions, distribute exercises to assure their facility with language

Students’ Role

Students should make use of what they already know. They are responsible for their own learning. They actively take part in exploring the language. Students are able to free themselves of any obstacles that would interfere with giving their full attention to the learning task

 The teacher works with the students, while students work on the language. St-st interaction is important. Sts can learn from each other.

 Nature of Interactions

1)   Student-Teacher Interaction

o  Teacher is silent

o  He is still a) very active, b) listen attentively to students speech, and c) silently working with them on production through non- verbal gestures

2)   Student-Student Interaction

o  Student- Student verbal interaction desirable and encouraged. Teacher uses one way to remain silent

Vocabulary and Grammar Teaching

·      Vocabulary is taught using visual aids and word charts. Word charts always recycle vocabulary. It was restricted at the beginning

·      There is a focus on the language structures although explicit grammar rules are never given

Characteristics of Teaching and Learning Process

·      With using Sound Colour Charts, students would begin their study through basic blocks

·      Sounds are introduced through language specific sound- colour charts

·      Rely on what students have already known from acquiring the basic knowledge of their native language, teachers lead their students to associate the sounds of TL with particular colours

·      These same colours are used to help students to gauge their spellings that corresponds to the sounds, how to read and pronounce the word correctly

·      Teacher often asks students to describe reactions/thoughts/feelings on the lesson they have learned.

Materials

1)    Sound Colour Charts

To teach pronunciation, one colour represents one sound in the target language.

2)    Colour Rods

Cognitive coding of grammatical patterns

3)    Fidel Charts

Used for sound spelling association

Error Correction

•  Errors are inevitable. The teacher uses students’ errors to decide where further work is necessary. Self-correction is vital for students to develop their inner criteria and to compare their own production

•  If students does not know how to self-correct, the teacher will provide the correct language, but only to the last resort.

•  Errors could also be corrected among peers, but it should be in a co-operative manner

Students’ feelings

Teacher observes the students. When feelings start to interfere with students, teacher tries to help students to overcome those feelings. During the feedback sessions, students were given an opportunity to express their feelings like their fears, what their thoughts on their classes, and learning a foreign language in terms of wants and needs. Because students are encouraged through each lesson to cooperate with one another, it hoped that a relaxed and enjoyable classroom-learning environment created(Freeman, 1993).

Areas of Language and Language Skills emphasized

i)              Pronunciation is worked from the beginning

ii)             It is vital for students to grasp the melody of language

iii)           There is also a focus on the language structures, although no explicit grammar rules

iv)           Vocabulary is restricted at first

v)            There is no fixed, linear, structural syllabus. First, the teacher starts with what the students know and build from one structure to the next.

vi)           Previously introduced structures are continually being recycled, when students repertoire is expanded The syllabus develops according to their needs of the students

vii)         The language skills are being reinforced, during learning

Out of all these explanations above, we might think how teachers evaluate students learning by using this method?

ü Although the teacher may never give a formal test, he assesses and monitors students learning of all time. One criterion of whether students have or have not learned is dependent on their ability to transfer what they have been studying in new contexts.

ü The teacher does not praise or criticize student behaviour since this will interfere with students developing their own inner criteria. He expects students to learn at different rates and looks for students steady progress

Techniques of the ‘Silent Way’

Sound Chart Colours (blocks of colour, each block represent the sound in the target language)

§  The teacher, followed later by students points to the blocks of colour on the chart to form syllables, words and sentences

§  The advantages of this chart as it enable students to produce sound combinations in the target language without repetition.

§  It helps draw students’ attention and allows them to focus on the TL, not the teacher.

§  When a particular sound contrast is new for students and they can perceive the sounds of the two they are producing, the sound- colour chart can be used to give them feedback on which sounds they are making.

Teacher’s silence

§  The teacher provide as much help, then silence

§  The teacher sets up an unambiguous situation, puts a language structure into circulation (e.g. Take a _______ rod), then its silence. 

Peer correction

• Students are encouraged to help  their peers when he or she is experiencing difficulty 
• Offer help in a cooperative manner
• Even in error correction, the teacher will only supply a verbal answer as a last resort 

Rods

Advantages:

§  Rods can be used to provide situations for any language structure, to introduce it, or to enable students to practice it

§  Trigger meaning: Situations when creating rods in such a way that makes meaning very clear, and there is a connection between language and meaning

§  At the beginning stage, rods can be used to teach colours and numbers. Later on, it this material can be used for more complicated structures

§  With using this method, some teachers will put the rods down in a line on the desk, using a different rod to represent each word in a sentence. By pointing to each rod in turn, while teacher remains silent, teacher will elicit the sentence from students and he will also make concrete to students aspects of structures. E.g invert the subject and auxiliary verb in forming questions

§  Allows students creativity and imagination

Word charts

Teacher and then students points to the words on the wall charts in a sequence, so that they can read aloud the sentences they have spoken. The way the letters are coloured helps them to improve their pronunciation. There are 12 English Charts that has 500 words. The chart also included functional English vocabulary. Students also uses pictures and books to expand their vocabulary level and facility with language

Fidel Charts

The teacher and then students point to the colour-coded. This chart teaches students to associate the sounds of the language with their spellings.

Example: listed together and coloured the same as the color block for the sound /ey/ are ay,ea,ei,eigh,etc, showing that all ways of spelling the /ey// sound in English (for instance in the words ‘say’, ‘steak’, ‘veil’, and ‘weigh’)

Structured Feedback

Students are welcome to observe the lessons and reflect what they have learned. The teacher will accept students’ comments in a non-defensive manner. The length and frequency of feedback sessions is really depends on the teacher and the class. Students will be independent.

http://youtu.be/sshhHFWwukM

This YouTube video shows the teacher named Don Cherry, where he uses the Silent Way method, which enable students construct their learning at their own pace. That is, teacher’s silence provides the cognitive and affective opportunity for students to be responsible towards their learning.

Don Cherry mentioned a silent method activity can be fun for students, by creating low affective filters in the  classroom environment. I agree with him because the "Silent Way" method centre on the students personal where they are allow to give their opinions, to discover the materials/lesson at their own pace. Although it is seen as student centered, it is however a grammar oriented method, where it adopts highly structural approach with language taught through sentences in a sequence based on grammatical complexity, which described as "building-block" approach. The rules of grammar are learned inductively by the students themselves. 

Reflection

Overall, I think the Silent Way is an unusual approach and it really provides opportunity for students to express what they are feeling and ask questions in their native language if their English is not proficient. It helps them to construct their own learning and explore at their own pace. Frequent feedback is part of this approach to make learners aware of their learning and teachers will speak the students. But there are some limitations to some students who may find themselves unable or might feel uncomfortable in getting to express their thoughts as the teacher is silent and I think the materials such as rods and the charts will fail in certain aspects such as introducing all aspects of language. As I mentioned in my previous post, it is up to the teachers to decide to use which methodology they think it is appropriate for their lessons or  a better way of using more than just one methodology. When teaching and learning changes according to the classroom setting, teachers are able to meet the needs of the students

References 

Larsen-Freeman, D. (1993). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press

The Audio-Lingual Method

On Monday ( 27/11/2014), our lecturer Dr.Rajan taught us two different approaches such as Direct Method and the Audio- Lingual Method. In this blog, I am going to focus only one approach which is called the 'Audio-lingual Method'. Audio-lingual Method is a method for foreign language teaching which point out the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing. 

History 

Before World War II, there were three methods: 

a) A modified direct method approach

b) A reading approach

c) reading-oral approach 

Based on the three methods above, there were two problems. One is the method lacked standardization of vocabulary and grammar, while the other is no one could agree the importance of teaching beginners, intermediate, and advanced students. The lacked structure. World War II changed everything. 

This method combines behavioural psychology and linguistic. It is also known as the 'Army Method' because this method occurred since the World War II for the American armies who has a need to learn the language quickly and intensively. The structural theory of language constituted its backbone. One of the theory underlies this method is called the "Structural Linguistics". Structural Linguistics influenced audio-lingualism  as a more practical interest in language study. It viewed language as a system of structurally related elements for the expression of meaning. These elements is based on language samples that could be described at any structural level(phonetic, phonemic,  morphological, sentence types). Linguistic levels are structured in a pyramid. Phonemic systems led to morphemic and these led to phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

The language theoreticians and methodologists is behavioural psychological which is an empirically based approach to the studying of human behaviour. Behaviourism attempts to explain how an external event (stimulus) caused a change in the behaviour of an individual( response) without using 'concept' or an 'idea'. 

In the Audio-lingual Method, students first hear a language. Then, they speak the language and proceed with reading and writing. Mother tongue is not allowed to use in the classroom when we used this method. The Audio Lingual Method does not focus on lots of vocabulary. The teacher drills speaking and grammar. Grammar is the most important in this method, particularly when the student have to repeat the grammar pattern after the teacher. This method also similar to the direct method. 

There was a time came when audio-lingual method is no longer being as a popular method in teaching English Language. In the 1950s, a linguists name Noam Chomsky documented that there were many shortfalls in this method. The behaviourist psychology to language learning was also questioned and this method was quickly phased out. 


Methodology 

The audio-lingual method includes drills and repetition patterns. There are four parts: 

• Repetition- the students repeat what the teacher says. 

Example:

        Teacher: I walk to school

        Student: I walk to school

• Inflection - When teacher say a word, students say another form of one of the words back to the teacher. 

Example: 

    

         Teacher: I walk to school

         Student: I walked to school

• Replacement - The teacher says a sentence and the students replace on of the words for a different word. 

Example: 

       

            Teacher: I walk to school

            Student: I run to school

• Restatement - The teacher will tell a sentence and the students rephrase the sentence. 

Example: 

             

           Teacher: Tell me to walk to school

           Student: Walk to school

Principles of audio-lingual teaching 

• Foreign language learning is a process of mechanical habit formation. Students will be able to give correct response than making a mistake. 
• It is an effective way to learn language skills if the items to be learned in the target language are delivered in a spoken form rather than the written form. Aural-oral training is needed to provide the foundation for the development of other language skills. 
• Drills allow students to form correct analogies.Therefore, teachers use an inductive approach to teach grammar rather than deductive
• The meaning that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in the linguistic and cultural                   (sriartini, 2013)

The advantages and disadvantages of audio-lingual 

Advantages 

• Students are able to speak the target language communicatively 
• Students have no difficulties in understanding the lesson as it is carried out in the mother tongue
• Students are able to provide a correct response directly 
• Students tend to worry about the combination between behavioral psychology and linguistic

Disadvantages

• Speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum
• Students play a passive role in the classroom
• Very little attention is paid to communication 
• Little attention is paid to content 
• Process of learning emphasize on speaking 

Due to these disadvantages, teachers will find ways to ensure pitfalls of the audio-lingual method                                                                                      (Lake, 2013)

Here is a You Tube clip below, about how the Audio-lingual Method (ALM) is used in the real classroom 

http://youtu.be/Pz0TPDUz3FU?list=PL7BlTIDdOgZJhim70umCX0sAJFOtMRnda

In this video, there are 25 students in the class. The teachers presents a dialogue in the class. This dialogue is in the form of role play, where the teacher role play as the salesman and the woman ( housewife). Students listen to the teacher. In the video, the teacher uses repetition method to teach students. The more often students repeat the sentences from the teacher, the stronger the habit. Thus, students will achieve in their learning. Moreover, this falls back to one of the characteristics of Audio-lingual method which is language is a habit formation. 

The teacher also did ask individual students to repeat the dialogues. If a particular student tend to make errors, the teacher will keep on repeating again until the student get to say the sentence in the right way. Because in audiolingualism, errors will lead to bad habits 

Subsitution Drills/ Grammar drills- encourage students to overlearn the sentence patterns of the dialogue. Overlearning the dialogue leads to automaticity 

Positive reinforcement is given by the teacher such as Good, Well Done, Smart...

Although most educators tend to discredited this method, but it is still used by some teachers because it is very teacher centred and both teachers and students know what to expect from the lesson. Despite its limitations, this method will be useful to drill students with sentences, but not use this method fully in isolation. The use of dialogues and drills are effective in foreign language teaching as they helped students to produce speech

Repetition can be helpful if there is a large number of students in the classroom and the teacher can use this method to build students pronunciation and speaking skills in the classroom. 

    

Another You Tube Clip: 

http://youtu.be/7qBq_mcrbC8

This video agrees with my points above, where the main focus for us teachers in using audio-lingual method is to teach language directly. The video also further gives more examples on the  four methodologies repetition, inflection, replacement, and restatement. As a whole, this method is still being used in the ESL/EFL classroom, but it will be more efficient if this method were use in conjunction of other methods. 

References

Lake, W.(2013). Audio-Lingual Method of Teaching English[Electronic Version]. Retrieved November 2, 2014, from http://blog.about-esl.com/audio-lingual-method-teaching-english/

Sriartni. (2013). Audio-Lingual Method[Electronic Version]. Retrieved November 2, 2014, from http://sriartini46.wordpress.com/2013/06/29/audio-lingual-method/

Multiple Intelligences and Learning styles (9/10/2014)

In this week lesson, our lecturer Dr.Rajendran taught us about Multiple Intelligences (MI) and Learning Styles.

       Multiple Intelligences (MI)

This theory is developed by Howard Gardner and it is known as the popular view of intelligence in schools. Howard Gardner had carried out some observations of school children and individuals with brain damage. Due to these observations, he reasoned that the abilities found are more separate and isolated than other theories portray them. The term 'Multiple Intelligences' is a type of intelligence that disagree that individuals may exhibit eight or more multiple intelligences.

Moreover, teachers have responded positively to Gardner's theory, where majority of them said that this theory may suit their experiences of  the different ways in which children learn. Also, it acts as a framework for organizing curricular and assessment and focuses teachers on what a child can do(O'Donnell, Reeve&Smith, 2009). Some teachers use multiple intelligences theory to focus on the students strengths and emphasize them. In my opinion, I agree with the teacher above and would like to add that multiple intelligences do taps into students intrinsic motivation levels through their talents and also helping teachers construct self-motivating educational experiences and the ones which help instill the concept of flow in the classroom. This theory does help teachers to explain and promote understanding at intrapersonal, interpersonal, and cultural levels.

To know more about multiple intelligences, I found two You Tube clips. The video in the below talks about Multiple Intelligences In the Classroom. My understanding of this video is an advice for teachers to give various opportunities for students to learn the material,  multiple ways to implement activities that best suited students multiple intelligences. As the video mentions, it is certainly not an easy task for teachers to implement all nine MI intelligences in the classroom, as it takes a lot of time for teachers to prepare activities that cater to their individual needs. Each of these intelligence has its own function. This function overlaps in order to plan lessons that will benefit students learning. All learners possess all nine multiple  intelligence. This  is important for teachers to develop instructional activities by paying close attention to the types of intelligences that students display as they solve problems and complete tasks. In view of this, I think it will be better if teachers provide varied activities for students to choose from, and the activities must also achieve the learning objectives.


I also learn on the support that teachers can provide to enhance students interpersonal intelligence and also briefly about existential intelligence. O'Donnell,Reeve& Smith, 2009 definition on 'existential intelligence', where it concerns with larger questions of human existence such as the meaning of life. This intelligence known as 'additional' intelligence developed by Howard Gardner.

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zGX458fHRF4




Below, is the YouTube clip that talks about students in Gainesville, Georgia where they know exactly how they are perceived as "smart". The teachers and administrators states that Multiple-Intelligences Theory can provide a flexible approach to good teaching. This helps to tailor classroom activities to individual students interests, needs and strengths at the school in Georgia.

http://youtu.be/7zBKAT3Ie_s


Existential intelligence

Eight Multiple Intelligences 

Based on Howard Gardner theory, an individual may have one or more of these intelligences below

• Musical Intelligence (music smart)
• Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence ( word smart)
• Interpersonal Intelligence (individual smart)
• Intrapersonal Intelligence ( people smart)
• Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence ( physical smart)
• Visual Spatial Intelligence (2D an design smart)
• Logical- Mathematical Intelligence ( numbers smart)
• Naturalistic Intelligence ( nature smart)

 I took a test which is called the Birmingham  Grid for Learning Multiple intelligences and found that I scored high for musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic,  naturalistic, and verbal-linguistic, while I scored less for logical mathematical and visual- spatial. I agree with the test because it is true that I love music and study with the music on. It keeps me calm and concentrate better. I'm also a bodily-kinesthetic person where I enjoyed hands on activities such as making playdoh or any other material and love moving around. I also enjoy sports such as running for  a marathon. Furthermore, I can say that I'm a naturalistic person because of my love of animals especially dogs. I have a pet dog whom I really love taking care of  and I am also a nature lover.

Benefits of using Multiple Intelligences(MI)

Teachers 

With multiple intelligences comes to mind to teachers, this will be a great authentic learning based on needs, talents and interests. The multiple intelligent classrooms seen as the "real" and "authentic" world.  

Parents 

Parents and community involvement in the school may increase. This will encourage both parents and the  community to be a part of the students work, as they demonstrate their work. 

Students 

They will be present and share some of their strengths. Building their strengths, gives students to be a 'specialist' and this will develop their self esteem. To value their strengths. 

                                                                                         (Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2004)

Other Educational Leaders say about MI 

The theory of MI celebrated its 20-year anniversary in 2004. This topic has been influence by many educational researchers. The following articles, books, and monographs examine applications of Multiple Intelligences for students in the special education. Adapting Instruction While Maintaining High Expectations Armstrong (2000) has proposed that the theory of MI has broad implications for special education. Because MI focuses on a wide spectrum of abilities, it helps placed "special needs" in a broader context. Armstrong maintains that a growth paradigm would be more appropriate for students with special needs. Teachers who viewed "special needs" in the context of the eight intelligences viewed all students differently. By using Multiple Intelligences ( M1) as a backdrop, teachers can begin to perceive children with special needs as whole persons possessing strengths in many areas ( Armstrong, 2000,p.104). Numerous educators  (Cushner, McClelland, & Safford, 2003; Gardner, 1999; Kornhaber, Fierros, & Veenema, 2004; Perkins, 1992) have argued that the best learning opportunities are those that are most successful for all students. What may need emphasis, is the way that the lessons are specifically tailored to needs of individual students or small group of students. Armstrong (2000) summarises that not only MI curriculum provides teachers with ways to personalise education for students, it also helps to cultivate a passion for life and career goals(see Fierros, 2004) 

Learning Styles 

The other theory that I learnt in Dr.Rajan class is  all  about Learning Styles. It defines on how people learn successfully and how a person prefers to concentrate, store, and retrieve new piece of information or knowledge in their own preferred learning style. Below,  learning styles are the three main different types of multiple intelligences. For example, 

• Auditory ( hearing)
• Visual   (seeing)
• Kinesthetic (experience/physical/ hands on)

Many students learn in many different ways. Learning styles is each student has a particular way of learning that works best for them, for instance hands on activities. Therefore, teachers should ensure that students can learn a particular style that suit their own learning preference.



Visual Learners learn through seeing pictures, and images. Students need to see the teacher's body language and facial expression to understand the content that is being presented in the lesson. They are learners who likes to sit in front of the classroom so they could see the visual displays such as diagrams, books, videos, charts, mind maps and classroom handouts during the lecture and love to write detailed notes to remember information.

While auditory learners learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, and they listen to what others have to say, and interpret the underlying meaning of speech through listening such as the pitch, tone of voices, and written information that have a little meaning. Kinesthetic learners learn best by moving around and benefit in more hands on activities. These learners love to explore the topic by applying the knowledge they have gained within the lesson.

You Tube Link: Find more about Learning Styles. Below

http://youtu.be/Kf7S9BRJ8nk

Out of all the three styles, I took a test in one of my modules in second year. The test is called the "Learning Style Inventory" test. This test was given by one of my lecturers to see whether I got the highest score in visual, auditory and kinesthetic. In addition, the test results are got I was strong visual learner and kinesthetic learner ,which  did not surprise me at all because I always  knew that I learn best through mind maps and a kind person who loves taking long and detailed notes during lectures or seminars. I also love moving around and understand better when experiencing something while learning in the classroom.  I love to  develop materials for kinesthetic learners throughout my  teaching experiences because I want my learners to be comfortable and experience the material. When they experience something, they would want to learn more and asked lots of open-ended questions.

Not only that, I scored quite good for auditory as I like listening to podcasts or songs while doing my assignment. It keeps me calm and focus on my work.

I would like to end my blog, with a cartoon that talks about Learning Styles

References 

Armstrong,T.(2000). Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2004. Concept to Classroom[online]. Retrieved October 9, 2014 from
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/mi/index_sub4.html
Fierros, E. (2004). How Multiple Intelligences Theory Can Guide Teachers Practices[online]. Retrieved December 5, 2014 from http://www.urbanschools.org/pdf/onPOINTS.multiple.intelligences.DOCUMENT.style.LETTERSIZE.pdf
O'Donnell,Reeve,&Smith, 2009. Educational Psychology:Reflection For Action. United States of America: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.